history of still life (Part 1)
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Still Life - a genre of fine arts, as well as the product of this genre, showing the inanimate objects (dishes, and other household items, fruits and vegetables, various victuals, battered game, bouquets of flowers, the attributes of an activity, etc.). Translated from the French nature morte mean "Dead nature".
elements of still life first emerged in ancient rock paintings, which depicted things had ritual significance. Diverse objects can be seen in the paintings of Egyptian tombs. Tremendous interest in the world of objects exhibited artists of ancient times. Although easel paintings, executed Ancient Greek painters, have reached us a little, from written sources it is known that in ancient Greece were extended still life, "dummy" written with a view to not only demonstrate mastery of the author, but to mislead viewers. Artists sought such an illusory image similarity with nature, that such patterns and in fact could deceive the public. One of the ancient writings testifies: painter Zeuxis so convincingly written the grapes that birds tried to peck berries. Once a famous artist and he was caught at the bait of his colleagues Parrasiya, draw the curtain that Zeuxis tried to draw back.
not inferior to the Greeks in their mastery of the ancient Romans. So, on the wall of ancient Roman city of Herculaneum, destroyed I century AD eruption of Vesuvius, was found fresco, representing the real still-life. With great skill the artist depicted a sprig with fruit and a glass vessel with water on the thin walls of which are light textures.
The Hermitage collection is stored samples of the mosaics of ancient Rome. One of them, having regard to the line I-II century AD, was found in 1740-ies near Avetinskogo hill in Rome. Such mosaic composition, framed by ornamental pattern, called emblems. The emblem, made of colored pieces of marble with addition of smalt, shows the attributes of Hercules - a club, cup Wine and mask of the hero, made of dark stones. In the lower part of the composition shows a pair of wild boars, harnessed to a cart with a bright red carpet. The front end carts - three apples. This is probably mythical golden apples that can give a person eternal youth. Hercules stole them from the garden of the Hesperides nymphs on the orders of King Eurystheus. Wild boar is also the dedicatory animal Greek hero who took his place in Roman art.
creating mosaics, Roman master, most likely, was guided by a picturesque pattern, possibly a wall painting, which is a still life composed of subjects home utensils and eatables. Such compositions have been distributed in Roman art at the time. Occurred and the frescoes showing the cart with the attributes of the gods. For example, in a house in Pompeii Vettii found painted with images of the two goats, pulling a cart with the attributes of Dionysus, and the ram with the attributes of Hermes.
Still life before and at the Roman mosaic "June", laid out in colored glazes. The composition shows a little barefoot boy, who personified In ancient Rome this summer. Over his curly head of the viewer sees the Latin inscription "Junius" - June. The artist who created this work, sings generosity of the earth and fertility of the summer. In the right hand of the child - a basket of onion (obligatory dish on the table the Romans from ancient times). Scientist Mark Terence Varon, who lived in the I century BC, wrote: "By the breath of our grandfathers and great grandfathers smelled garlic and onions, but their spirit was the spirit of courage and strength."
In his left hand the boy-June holds a tray with fruit. Fruits are piled in a large basket near the table. On a low table on the right are two large fish, and the third fell at the feet of the child. Gifts Sea can be seen in the left side of the canvas. The Romans were very fond of seafood, and famous philosopher Seneca wrote that because of his gluttony, they are constantly were ready "to scour the depths of the sea and pull the shell in an unknown shore farthest sea."
colorful mosaic of wealth for many Ages delights the audience. Not lost its freshness and brightness of the red apples lying on a blue tray, fish scales poured yellow, brown, red, blue and green hues. The figure of the boy in the ocher-orange tunic and all objects of still life expressive allocated to light-yellow background.
In XV-XVI centuries, still life was spread mainly as part of a pictorial composition. As an independent genre, he finally formed in the XVII century in Holland. Here, still life was especially loved and revered. The Dutch called it is not nature morte ("dead nature"), and stilleven, which means "quiet life". In this title reflected a love and reverent attitude of Dutch artists to the wonderful world of things.
But the interest in still lifes appeared in Dutch painting much earlier. Artists were injected into an environment of religious scene details such as flowers, fruits, vessels. These items helped to bring the image of something earthy, bright and happy. So, Ios van Cleve (1464 - ca. 1540) in the composition of the Madonna and Child with Joseph "(the Hermitage, St. Petersburg) has shown on the parapet, close with bare feet baby Jesus, a sliced orange and a small knife with a pearl handle. There also is a flowering branch of aquilegia. And if such a detail, a clove in the hands of the Virgin Mary, has a symbolic meaning, the other items presented on the canvas with a single purpose - to decorate the picture.
Many Dutch painters XV-XVI centuries, seeking to make the image more convincing, have paid great attention to the things surrounding the person. For example, the famous Dutch painter Quinten Masseys (1465-1530), who performed in 1514 his famous painting "I was with my wife" (Louvre, Paris), carefully ordered items arranged on a table in front changer and his wife: a small mirror, silver coins, a prayer book with vivid miniatures and other things.
Similar pictures characters which were money-changers and tax collectors, are widespread in the works of followers Masseysa. Artist Marinus van Reymersvale (ca. 1493 - ca. 1570), who wrote the canvas "tax collectors" (Hermitage, St. Petersburg), focuses not only on the appearance of characters (the master gives a very accurate description characters), but also on things on the table. The viewer sees the coin, a thick book in which one of the collectors records, a knife, and print. On the shelf are candlestick oplyvshim with candle box, and a variety of professional attributes.
Nevertheless, these still lifes in the works of artists XV-XVI centuries did not play independent role. They are subject to domestic subjects and serve as complements to the images of human figures.
Appearance actually still life associated with the name Peter Arts. It was his most researchers considered the founder of this genre. Before the advent of products Aartsen can speak only about the rise in the number of subjects in religious and household compositions. In the work of this master, and his younger compatriot Joachim Beykelara (Ca. 1530 - ca. 1573) is dominated by images of fish and meat stalls, where the emphasis shifted from the human figure in a variety of victuals, spread out on foreground. Tradition of still life painting Aartsen were developed in the art of Flemish painters, in particular F. Snyders.
interest in the topic shops displayed, and the Dutch painters, but their songs seem more modest by comparison with luxurious and striking works of Snyders. Such painting "Fish Shop", written by one of the followers or students of Arts. The viewer feels that the passion for the transfer of the decomposed on the table eatables (seafood, various vegetables and fruits) prevailed over the desire to describe people engaged in food choices.
Theme shops found reflected in the works of Dutch masters of still life of the XVII century. In ermitazhskoy collection is kept painting by an unknown artist, dubbed "Fishmonger." The author shows the viewer two plans, in which both the action unfolds. Figures of the seller and women customers are at the table with the expansion of victuals: vegetables, large and small fish, Game. And right at the bottom of the composition, through the doorway you can see the interior of the room, which extends the action: the mistress, returning the products of the shop, began to prepare dinner. On the table is all bought it. The walls of houses are decorated with landscapes. Owner of the house, gleefully greeted the dog enters the room. Two parallel plan seem unrelated, and the transfer of the prospects for an artist - Still a difficult task. In contrast to the still-life paintings of the XVI century "Fish Shop", performed by masters of the XVII century, is devoid of brilliance, its flavor tends to be uniform tonality.
Tradition Pieter Aartsen were picked up by other Dutch masters of the XVII century - Christoffel Peytlingom (1640 - after 1670). In a free manner performed his song "The cook at the table with the game" (the Hermitage, St. Petersburg), where broken game on the table is written in a range of brown shades.
Already at the end of the XVI century in the works of artists of the Netherlands, new motives. In watercolor compositions of this time, you can see flowers, fruits, colorful butterflies and other insects. Beauty of the world have sought to convey in his works of the so-called scientific naturalism, which emerged by the end of the XVI century. Among them was a Dutch master George Hufnagel (1542-1600), famous for his illustrations to the works of scientists. Gone century, and his drawings, extremely accurately to the flowers, fish, birds, amphibians and mammals, naturalists subsequent generations continued to study structure of plants and animals. Hufnagel create a watercolor paintings with motifs of flowers and fruit in the XVI century was not yet.
In the XVII century painting natyurmortistov new themes. "A little breakfast," "Snack," "Set the table", "Little banquet," "Bouquet" - are affectionate and harmonious names given to their Dutch masters paintings. In no other country on the planet painters did not pay much attention image inanimate world. Anywhere except in Holland, do not enjoy such popularity paintings featuring flowers, fruits, vegetables, dishes.
in the artistic environment was set specialists who created it still lives, and thanks largely to the efforts of these artists there was a further development of realistic painting.
Holland XVII century, freed along with the other provinces of the Northern Netherlands from English rule, has taken a leading role in cultural life Europe. Such a situation facilitated by the fact that the Catholic Church, first did not allow people to breathe the Netherlands, finally stepped aside under the pressure of Calvinism, the installation of conquering earthly goods. This interest in the real world contributed to the development of many genres, including still life.
moved forwards and science. Craze imported from other countries curiosities, exotic plants, birds, animals, spurred to the development of science. In Holland, as well as in many European countries, there were the botanical gardens, zoos. Began to publish works of scientists, Illustrated Atlas, devoted to the world of plants, animals, birds and insects.
Dutch science came in first place in the world. Printed in the country, the book costs among readers in many European countries. To enroll in Leiden and other universities in Holland, came to the young people from all over Europe.
Large attention was paid in the country not only natural and physical sciences, but also painting, facing the surrounding reality. The paintings of Dutch artists along with Game and Fish asleep, you can see live birds, animals and insects. Just because the name "stilleven", which appeared after 1650, rather than the expression "Nature morte" ("Nature Morte"), captures the essence of works created by painters of Holland. Significant place in their canvases occupy vegetables, fruits, as well as objects created by man: porcelain, glass, metal tableware, various utensils.
major role in shaping the early Dutch still life played by such artists as Ambrosius Boshart and Balthasar van der Ast, the main themes of art which were the fruits, flowers, insects and shells. In Middelburg, where these masters lived, worked and Johannes Gudart, famous not only as natyurmortist, but as a famous entomologist. Their research in this area, he presented in the published work in 1666, followed by 150 author's drawings of plants, insects, butterflies, shown at the time of their transformations.
main themes of Dutch natyurmortistov - quiet life of things, flowers and ripe fruit, brightened up human existence. These same topics are often treated and artists in the genre. In their paintings, as well as in still lifes, influenced particular attitude, an appreciation earthly life, love and respect for the world of things.
Gradually, from still life, just fixing things, exposed before the audience and artists switched to a more subtle understanding of the subjects. Harlemskie painters Pieter Claesz and Willem Claesz Heda created a modest "breakfast" with a simple set of blunt subjects. This is a fresh golden buns, pewter plates and dishes, glass jars and goblets, painted in muted colors.
Similar works, and "kitchen" still life with a few fish, such as Rotterdam in the compositions of artists Peter and Willem de Pyuttera Orme, reflected the puritanical tastes democratic public first half of XVII century.
Willem Orme (first mentioned in 1638, died in 1673) often worked together Adam Villartsom (1577-1664). The first is usually portrayed fish catches, the second - seascapes. Joint work of artists was characteristic of Dutch painting XVII century. It is known that the painting "Fish on the beach" Villartsu Orme and helped create a third master - Hemskerk inscribed in track shape people. This is probably why part of the picture seem a little unrelated.
significant role in the development of Dutch still life played the famous portraitist Frans Hals, who in his early work has paid great attention to the world of objects, as evidenced by the beautiful images of dishes on his paintings, executed in the first quarter of the XVII century. Later Hulse left the detail in the transfer environment by giving all their attention on the characteristic rights.
In the tradition of tonal still life worked a number of Amsterdam's painters. Rembrandt, who wrote in the early period of his life painting Imaging scientists, introduced in the composition of a variety of attributes - books, globes, etc. While living in Amsterdam, the great Dutch artist created, and several these still-lifes who have been a model for his students and followers.
"Breakfast Amsterdam natyurmortistov close to the works of masters from Haarlem, but differ in the warmer colors. For example, the painting "Breakfast" (the Hermitage, St. Petersburg), made by Jan Yansom track (ca. 1606-1652) written in a single tone and is very similar to the paintings and Claes Kheda, but its flavor tends to be greenish-gray tones, while the latter sought to use gold and olive tones.
tonal still life writing and the Leiden artist Francis Geysbrehts. Dates of birth and death is unknown, and paintings save a little. But the extant work, despite the compositional simplicity and modesty of the things depicted in them are astonishingly elegant.
This is "Still Life", which is stored in the Hermitage collection. On the canvas viewer sees a lot of items. Here, cheese, bun, a jar of wine, bottle, large fish with iridescent blue-silvery scales, a bunch of green onions, hanging from a jug. Cool colors and sharpness of contours - are the main features of the brushwork Geysbrehtsa.
particular type of still life in the art of Holland were paintings of meat carcasses. Such works created at the initial stage of his career, Rembrandt. In this genre worked harlemskie artists - brothers, Adrian (1610-1685) and Izakov (1621-1649) van Ostade, wrote the web Sarah with children playing '(The Hermitage, Saint-Petersburg).
In Rotterdam, was designed "kitchen" still life that represents the image inner space of the peasant house with household utensils laid out on the floor. Usually artists are placed in the track a human figure - The hostess, dressed in a modest peasant dress. But all attention was directed not at her, but on things. Utensils (pots, bowls, barrels, wooden tubs, pots) Wizard written out very carefully and with great skill.
Similar work was performed and Flemish painters, in particular D. Teniers and A. Brouve, but Dutch painting more calm and contemplative. Kitchen still lifes are in the works of F. Reykhalsa who worked in Middelburg and Dordrecht, as well as heritage Rotterdam artist Herman Saftlevena Younger (1609-1685). Among recent works are widely known painting "Interior of a peasant hut" (1634, Hermitage, Saint-Petersburg). The wizard does not deviate from accepted traditions in the interpretation of images and highlights the numerous objects of peasant utensils. In fact, as Saftleven transmits light, feel the influence of Rembrandt.
With the further strengthening of the Dutch bourgeoisie changed the requirements for painting. Simple, unpretentious still life gives way to images of things presented by hitting the luxury and richness of color. Before modest "meals" are transformed into colorful pattern in which the viewer sees the carpet-covered tables with cloths spread out on them expensive items. Here, dishes from Delft earthenware bowls Chinese porcelain, golden orange, pale yellow peaches, covered with dew clusters of grapes, the transparent glass of wine glasses, shiny gilt Cups, reflecting in its smooth surface flowing out of the window light. These elegant still life with great skill carried Willem Calf, Abraham van Beyer, Hendrik van Strack.
In the second half of XVII century the immense popularity began to use lush bouquets of flowers, the beauty of highlighting sheen gilt vessels and white porcelain dishes with Decomposition of summer fruit. Around the same time, there were the first hunting still life with a bat game. Such patterns suggest that one of the main entertainment of rich bourgeoisie of that time was the aristocratic class - hunting. Thus, development of still life depended on changes in lifestyle and tastes of society.
Almost every major Dutch city appeared a type of still life. Thus, in the booming Harlem has formed tonal still life, and in Amsterdam, the main center of cultural and economic life of the country, successfully used the "dessert" J. van Strack and V. Calfee, which replaced a modest "breakfast" Claes P. and VK Kheda. Living near Sheveningenskogo coast, in the Hague, A. van Beijeren turned to still life with fish. And in Leiden is famous for its university, developed vanitas still life with hourglass clock and the skull. The purpose of these compositions - to remind the viewer of the transience of earthly existence, raised doubts about his place in life. It was in Leiden was established set of paintings depicting scholars in an environment of books, pens, globes and other attributes of the science, often occupy the entire space the first plan.
These students have written works by Rembrandt, Gerard Dou and Gerbrandt van den Ekhaut (1621-1674), who testified on his canvas "The Scientist in the cabinet" (Hermitage, St. Petersburg), the old man is behind a desk. Interestingly composition solution of this picture. Draw back the curtain for the audience sees a small room with lots of books. They lie on a table, shelf or even on the floor. Light from the window illuminates a large open volume, the map on the wall, face of the scientist in whose eyes visible hard work of thought.
picture on a similar topic has performed and harlemsky master Thomas Weik. But the composition solution his paintings, "The scientist in his office" is somewhat different. Figure of the scientist artist moved into the space. The entire foreground is filled with a variety of attributes of the profession. Great books on the table and on the floor. Among them - the blood vessels and pitchers, skull and the globe. Light, snatched from the shadow of individual items creates the impression of chaos surrounding the hero. Things in a mess in the towering office, as opposed to man, calm and immersed deep in thought.
In the second half of XVII century its luxury "desserts," glorified Willem van Aalst, Cornelis de Heem, van Yurian Strack. The latter resembles the art of painting Barent van der Mera (1659 - between 1690 and 1702). At the same time in some of his paintings, Rembrandt's influence is palpable. Such "Dessert" (The Hermitage, St. Petersburg) - a terse, but very refined, and delight in its illyuzionisticheskoy conviction.
Many painters second half of XVII century, more than once appealed to his creativity to the genre of floral still lifes, as well as to compositions featuring insects. The basis of interest to these topics is the Dutch way of life that are on small plots of land reclaimed from the sea elements, grew a wide variety of plants. In an effort to make your life brighter and more colorful inhabitants of the Netherlands to take the care of their gardens for flowers and fruit. Contributed to the development of science the appearance of botanical gardens to universities. Both scholars and students could study plant life, to make a herbarium, to conduct experiments on crossing different plants.
played a significant role of Leiden University. Botany at Leiden suitable natural material collected and studied it in laboratories. The university gardens, nurturing the new varieties of flowers, fruits, tried to plant specimens brought from other countries. While in Leiden lived a famous French scientist Charles de l'Eklyuz was grown plants unknown in the Netherlands, for what it was called the "father of color."
enormous popular with the Dutch enjoyed the tulips. The bulbs of these flowers were to European countries from Turkey to the end of the XVI century. In Leiden tulips planted vast spaces, and enthusiasts began to experiment, throwing a variety of species of this flower. For rare species sometimes paying huge money. He started a real "tulip fever", killing more than one lover (so broke the famous Dutch landscape painter Jan van Goyen).
with no less attention to the people of Holland took care of fruit trees, which were created for the greenhouse. Citrus and grapes were brought in country from the colonies in the West and the East Indies.
Painters, as well as all other inhabitants of the country could not remain indifferent to the beautiful flowers and exotic fruit. Very often, they are united in their compositions, and fruit plants, flowering and ripening at different times. Sometimes to finish one canvas, the master had to wait several months.
At the same time appeared the type of still life, dedicated to the image of insects, reptiles, shown in the background of the forest or a field overgrown with tall grass and bushes. Very often in such compositions in the open air were presented to a variety of creatures, and among them - brought in to Holland from other countries. The founder of an unusual variety of still life became Otto Marseus Skrik van (1619 or 1620-1678). Artist lots traveled to Europe, he visited France, England and Italy. Back in Amsterdam, he bought a house with land, which made a terrarium. Skrik settled it has various reptiles and insects. In the wizard, there's a lot of heritage studies and sketches on snakes, lizards, butterflies. These same motifs inspired him to create paintings. Pictures Skrika very dynamic and full of movement, they show that the average person can not easily see around themselves. This is the painting "Flowers, butterflies and snakes" (the Hermitage, St. Petersburg).
Similar themes have inspired and Mathias Vithoza (c. 1627-1703), who visited in Italy with Skrikom. Since 1653 he has lived in Amsterdam and in 1672 settled in the Horn. But if the pictures are shown Skrika bright garden flowers, the Vithoz prefers wild prickly plants, among which takes a mysterious lives of animals and insects ("Flowers, a hedgehog and a frog", 1660, the Hermitage, St. Petersburg). The artist carefully and very eloquently writes of his "heroes." Colorful wealth of tracks makes them extremely attractive for the spectators.
Flower motifs drawn by Dutch artists for a long time. This type of still life, formed in the first half of XVII century in the works of Ambrosius Bosharta and Balthasar van der Asta, found its completion in the painting by Jan Davids de Hema, Justus van Heysuma and his son Jan van Heysuma - famous wizard late still life.
lush gardens devoted set of colors of his paintings Abraham Mignon (1640-1679), German painter, who worked in the Netherlands, in Utrecht. In fact, as drawn flower bouquets in the compositions of Mignon, felt fine artistic taste and an extraordinary coloristic mastery ("Flowers in a vase, the Hermitage, St. Petersburg). Decorative and colorful paintings with their beautiful enamel surface delights the audience. The modern researcher Lorenz pain, admiring the artist's masterly ability to transfer not only plants and fruits, but also animals, insects, birds, wrote that his paintings - a "spectacle where you can open a lot. " Such cloth "Fruits" (Hermitage, St. Petersburg), depicting flowers, vegetables, fruits, berries, birds, butterflies, lizards and frogs. Here you can see a bunch of freshly caught fish and bird's nest with whitening in it eggs.
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